Ancient Historians of Roman History

Below youll find a list of the periods of ancient Rome (753 BC.-A.D. 476) followed by the main ancient historians of that period. When writing about history, primary written sources are preferred. Unfortunately, this can be difficult for ancient history. Although technically those ancient writers who lived after the events are secondary sources, they have two possible advantages over modern secondary sources: They lived roughly two millennia closer to the events in question.They may have had access to primary source materials. Here are the names and relevant periods for some of the main ancient Latin and Greek sources for Roman history. Some of these historians lived at the time of the events, and therefore, may actually be primary sources, but others, especially Plutarch (CE 45-125), who covers men from multiple eras, lived later than the events they describe. From the Founding to the Beginning of the Punic Wars (754-261 BCE) Most of this period is legendary, especially before the fourth century. This was the time of kings and then the expansion of Rome into Italy. Dionysius of Halicarnassus (fl. c.20 BCE)Livy (c.59 BCE-c. CE 17)Plutarchs lives ofRomulusNumaCoriolanusPoplicolaCamillus From the Punic Wars to the Civil Wars Under the Gracchi (264-134 BCE) By this period, there were historical records. This was a period when Rome expanded beyond the borders of Italy and dealt with​ the  conflict between plebeians and patricians. Polybius (c.200-c.120 BCE)LivyAppian (c. CE 95-165)Florus (c.70-c.140CE)Plutarchs lives of:Fabius MaximusP. AemiliusMarcellusM. CatoFlaminius From the Civil Wars to the Fall of the Republic (30 BCE) This was an exciting and violent period of Roman history dominated by powerful individuals, like Caesar, who also provides eye witness accounts of his military campaigns. AppianVelleius Paterculus (c.19 BCE-c. CE 30),Sallust (c.86-35/34 BCE)Caesar (July 12/13, 102/100 BCE-March 15, 44 BCE)Cicero (106-43 BCE)Dio Cassius (c. CE  150-235)Plutarchs lives ofMariusSullaLucullusCrassusSertoriusCatoCiceroBrutusAntonius The Empire to the Fall in A.D. 476 From Augustus to Commodus The power of the emperor was still being defined in this period. There had been the Julio-Claudian dynasty, the Flavian dynasty, and the period of the Five Good Emperors, none of whom was the biological son of the previous emperor. Then came Marcus Aurelius, the last of the good emperors who was succeeded by one of Romes worst, his son, Commodus. From Commodus to Diocletian During the period from Commodus to Diocletian soldiers became emperors and Romes armies in various parts of the known world were declaring their leaders emperor. By the time of Diocletian the Roman Empire had grown too large and complex for one man to handle, so Diocletian divided it in two (two Augustuses) and added assistant emperors (two Caesars). From Diocletian to the Fall - Christian and Pagan Sources For an emperor like Julian, a pagan, religious biases in both directions factor into the credibility of his biographies. Christian historians of late antiquity had a religious agenda which relegated to lesser importance the presentation of secular history, but some of the historians were very careful of their facts, anyway. Dio CassiusTacitus (c. CE 56-c.120 CE?)Suetonius (c.CE 69-122). Lives of:AugustusTiberiusCaligulaClaudiusNeroGalbaOthoVitelliusVespasianTitusDomitianVelleius PaterculusHerodian (c.170-c.240 CE; fl. c.230 CE)Scriptores Historiae AugustaeEutropius (4th C.)Aurelius (4th C.)Zosimus (5th C.)Ammianus MarcellinusOrosius (c.385–420 CE)Eusebios of Caesarea (260-340 CE)Socrates Scholasticus (c.379-440 CE)Theodoret (393-466 CE)Sozomen (c.400-450 CE)Evagrius (c.536-c.595 CE)Codex TheodosianusCodex Justinianeus Sources A. H. L. Herren,  A Manual of Ancient History the Constitutions, the Commerce, and the Colonies of the States of Antiquity (1877) Palala Press republished in 2016.Byzantine Historians

Native American And English Colonists - 1056 Words

Formal Paper English colonists first came to America late 1500s with the lost colony of Roanoke. English settlers then tried again for a permanent settlement in the early 1600s with Jamestown. Following Jamestown the English were consistently sending new colonists from England to America. The first English settlers had faced quite the hardships. None of the colonists were prepared or equipped with the knowledge to survive in their new environment. This is where Native American and English colonists interactions began. Prior to English settlers, the Native Americans had also had interactions with the Spanish. At first people believed that English colonists would treat the Natives better than the Spanish colonists. But as history has shown,†¦show more content†¦Despite the hospitality of the Powhatans, whatever they did not give the colonists, the colonists just stole it. The Powhatans stopped offering their lending hand. The atrocities the English committed against the Powhatans were comparable of those of the Spanish. One instance in 1610, a Powhatan chief was convicted for being rude. An English officer and his men invaded the Native American town, â€Å"seized some of the natives, ‘putt some fiftene or sixtene to the Sworde’ and cut off their heads. Then he ordered his men to burn homes and crops. When the expedition returned to its boats, his men complained that Percy had spared an Indian ‘quene and her Children.’ Percy relented, and threw the children overboard ‘shoteinge owtt their Braynes in the water.’ His men insisted that he burn the queen alive, but Percy less cruel, stabbed her to death.† The English saw themselves superior and considered the Native Americans as savages. A major reason the relationship between the Native Americans and colonists deteriorated was because the total misunderstanding they had of one another. The Europeans did not understand the social structure of Native American tribes. For instance, the settlers believed that the chief had the same power as the king of England. This caused confusion for the English because they believed the chiefs shouldShow MoreRelatedChanges Caused By Native Americans And English Colonists On The Environment1584 Words   |  7 Pagesinteractions of Native Americans and Europeans with the environment. Changes caused by people such as Native Americans and English colonists affects the environment and results in a change in the environment where, now the people have to adapt to change in the environment. The first Europeans who saw the coast of pre-colonial New England thought of it as untapped virgin lands that had infinite resources. Cronon talks about how Henry Thoreau described the woods where Native Americans lived as â€Å"moreRead MoreThe Colonization Of Europeans Into The North America1555 Words   |  7 Pagesthe North America had considerable impacts on the Native American lives. European empire at the time, such as the French, England and Spanish empires, often fought against each other for power and control. After the European tried to colonized, the Native American suddenly found themselves dealing with European power politics. The arrival of Europeans into the New World meant new political relationships for both the European and the Native Americans. Each side had thing to gain and loss in this kindRead MoreThe Longstanding Institution of Slavery in the United States Essay670 Words   |  3 PagesNevertheless, with the discovery of the New World, the English experie nced a shortage of laborers to work the lands they claimed. 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When the Europeans arrived, they held differentRead MoreThe Genocide Of The Native Americans1516 Words   |  7 PagesCristina Savaglio Prof. Di Lorenzo History 203 24 November 2014 The Genocide of the Native Americans Early European colonization of the Americas was initially marked by both exchange and conflict. When the English colonists arrived in the Americas most Indian tribes welcomed them. Many Indians believed the settling colonists would assist in protecting their tribe from other powerful tribes in the area, because the colonists had access to weapons. In exchange for this added protection, the Indians generouslyRead MoreQueen Elizabeth I Of England967 Words   |  4 Pagesgranted English aristocrat Sir Walter Ralegh the rights to introduce a settlement to spread the influence of the Queen and the Christian faith. In 1585, the first English settlers populated the new colony of Roanoke. By establishing Roanoke, the English hoped to launch trade with the Native Americans and mount piracy attacks on the ships of the enemy Spanish fleet. Queen Elizabeth sponsored â€Å"privateering† by motivating English sailors to raid and pillage Spanish ships, and having an English colonyRead More Amerindian Arguments and Actions Essay771 Words   |  4 Pages The Native American chronicle is one of treachery and death. These Indians lived lives of concord and prosperity for centuries. However, their reign terminated with the arrival of European settlers in the 15th century. The arising onslaught of foreign colonists is considered by some to be the initiation of the â€Å"American Holocaust† (Native American Genocide). The immigrants did not share customs or spiritual views with the Native people, so they attempted to annihilate the Native American populaceRead MoreEssay about Native American In Colonial America1167 Words   |  5 Pagesdifferent parts of the ocean in search of a faster water route to Asia. Along the way, Europeans explorers discovered a whole new continent, America. Thinking that he was in India, Christopher Columbus, an Italian sailor, called the indigenous Native Americans he met â€Å"Indians,† a misnomer that is still used frequently even up to this day. Europeans soon shifted their attention away from the water route to Asia but toward the colonization of the New World. With a desire to have a new life differentRead MoreEnglish Relationship Between English Indians And Native Americans1092 Words   |  5 PagesRelationships between English settlers and Native American tribes were central to both the successes and the failures of the early English colonies in America. Although conflict often characterized relationships between the so-called â€Å"Indians† and the English, many of the initial colonies owed their survival and successes to the natives. The Native Americans were valuable trading partners, occasional allies, and aid in sickness and famine. However, various conflicts between tribes and settlersRead MoreCompare And Contrast Jamestown And Plymouth Colony1269 Words   |  6 PagesMassachusetts (â€Å"Plymouth Colony†n.d.) Plymouth was founded in 1620 (â€Å"Plymouth Colony† n.d.) The Jamestown colonists came from England ( â€Å"Stebbins, 2011â⠂¬ ). King Jame I gave Virginia its name (â€Å"Stebbins, 2011†). The Plymouth colonists came from England (â€Å"Plymouth Colony† n.d.) The Jamestown colony was allowed to use the river (â€Å"Colonizing the Chesapeake and New England Colonies† n.d.) The goal of the colonists of Jamestown was to find a settlement ( â€Å"Stebbins, 2011†). The goal of the Plymouth colony was to

Nickel Base Super Alloys For Aerospace Materials Engineering Essay Free Essays

string(175) " is besides one of the diffusion controlled weirdo as the atoms diffuse along the grain boundary which produces a net flow of the stuff and a sliding of the grain boundaries\." A ace metal, high public presentation metal is an metal which exhibits first-class mechanical strength and weirdo opposition and besides have good corrosion and oxidization opposition. Super metal typical have a matrix with face centered three-dimensional crystal construction. A Ace metal base debasing component is nickel, Co, or nickel-iron. We will write a custom essay sample on Nickel Base Super Alloys For Aerospace Materials Engineering Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now In Earlier 1950 ‘s unstained steel is used as a ace metal. Super metal growing that has quickly improved both on chemical and processing of that which led to rapid growing in aerospace, industrial gas turbine and marine turbine industry. In which nickel base ace metal are used in the readying of the turbine blades which can defy long clip at the elevated temperatures for the betterment of the public presentation of the turbine. Desirable features of high temperature ace metals: 1. Nickel basal metal should hold ability to defy lading at an operating temperatures near to the thaw point. 2. It has significant opposition to mechanical debasement over the drawn-out period of clip ( immune to crawl ) . 3. It should digest terrible runing environments ( immune to corrosive atmosphere ) . Chemical composing and Microstructure of Nickel base super alloys. Earlier Ni-based ace metal was derived from metals incorporating add-ons of chromium, copper, carbon monoxide and fe.With belongingss superior to that of chromium steel steels as these individual stage Ni-base metal exhibits good high temperature strength and corrosion opposition. As rigorous demands of the quickly developing aerospace industry. To better the above desirable features of the ace alloys aluminium add-ons to be added to individual stage nickel base super alloys to bring forth two stage microstructure to organize ordered ?1 matrix distributed within a broken ? matrix. In the stage diagram as the Al degrees typically at about 18 atomic % and staying 70-80 % as Ni. As the big emphasiss are required for the disruption of the ?1precipitates to boot shearing of the precipitates the ordination of the ?1 precipitates requires the formation of the anti stage boundary. As the big emphasis required for orowan obeisance and the shearing of the precipitates. So, these cubelike crystals of the secondary stage are highly effectual in suppressing the mobility of the disruptions. And besides improves the weirdo belongingss at the temperatures from 700-10000c.As the high temperature belongingss of Ni-base super metals are: Ni has a face centered three-dimensional crystal construction with high thaw temperature which makes it malleable and tough.Ni is stable in Fcc crystal construction from room temperature to its runing point. so there is no stage alteration and diffusion rates in Ni are low which improves microstructure stableness at elevated temperatures. As the misfit between the ? and ?1 precipitates will alter the microstructure under the influence of th e emphasis as this is controlled by changing the chemical composings and treating conditions. As in the Ni base ? – ?1 precipitates the strength and weirdo opposition has been increased by developing some technology solutions to get the better of the restrictions. The major debasing elements that should be added to Ni base metals are Al, Ni, Ti and Nb as the add-on of these tend to divider of preferentially to intermetallic ?1 precipitates. Co add-on provides solid solution beef uping but is chiefly added to modify the ?1 solvus temperatures. And other debasing add-ons are Re, W, Mo, V, Cr and Pt group metals are added to beef up to both solid ? and ?1 precipitates at elevated temperatures. As the Al and Cr both are added to beef up the Ni-base metals but depending upon the belongingss required should be added for one peculiar set of belongingss. The minor debasing elements such as B, C, Zr and Hf, were added ensuing in the formation of the carbides and on occasion borides at the grain boundary. As the C atoms exhibit high affinity for the elements such as Hf, Zr, Ta and Ti, Nb, tungsten, Mo, V and Cr, the bulk of carbides in Ni-base metal is metal atom carbides may precipitate from liquid during hardening. As the carbides may impact the weariness belongingss of the stuff the presence of the distinct carbide at the grain boundary inhibits the sliding and harm during the weirdo. Creep behavior of Ni-based metals: Creep is the distortion under the influence of emphasiss at elevated temperature. Creep is the clip dependent, inelastic and irrerecoverable distortion. Creep is more terrible in stuffs subjected to heat for a long periods. As creep ever increases with temperature. The rate of distortion of the stuff depends upon the stuff belongingss, clip, temperature and applied emphasis. See the blades of the turbines as the weirdo of the blade is to reach the shell, ensuing in the failure of the blade. Creep does non happen all of a sudden like brickle stuffs as it is a clip dependent distortion. The phases of the weirdo are in the primary phase strain rate is comparatively high, but slows with increasing strain this is due to work hardening, in the secondary phase the strain rate finally reaches minimal and becomes changeless and in the concluding phase strain additions quickly because of the necking phenomena. General creep equations: d?/dt = C?m/db e-q/kt Where ? is the weirdo strain, C is changeless dependant on the stuff, ? is the applied emphasis, m and B are the advocates depend on weirdo is the grain size, K is Boltzmann ‘s invariable. There are 3 types of weirdo: Dislocation weirdo: Dislocation weirdo of the stuff is the motion of the disruptions through the crystal lattice. It causes fictile distortion of the single crystals at the terminal of the stuff. d?/dt = A?ne-q/kt Nabarro-herring weirdo: Nabarro-herring weirdo is a signifier of diffusion weirdo in which atoms migrate within the grain boundary to stretch grain along the emphasis axis. At higher temperatures the diffusivity additions due to the direct temperature dependance of the equation, the addition in the vacancy through defect formation, an addition in the mean energy of the atoms in the stuff. Coble weirdo: Coble weirdo is besides one of the diffusion controlled weirdo as the atoms diffuse along the grain boundary which produces a net flow of the stuff and a sliding of the grain boundaries. You read "Nickel Base Super Alloys For Aerospace Materials Engineering Essay" in category "Essay examples" Defects in crystals: a – interstitial dross atom in the crystal lattice b – Edge disruption in the crystal c – Self interstitial atom of the stuff d – Vacancy in the lattice construction e – Precipitate of dross atoms f – Vacancy disruption of the cringle g – Interstitial disruption in the cringle h – Substitution dross atom in the stuff Dislocations: Dislocation is a 1-D defect as the lattice is merely disturbed along the disruption line. The disruption of the crystal may be generated due to some vacancies, point defects, interstitial drosss in the crystal lattice. Edge Dislocation: The motion of the disruption moves the crystal from one side relation to the other. In the figure below the left figure shows the shutting of the disruption crystal. And the right figure shows same concatenation of base vectors in a perfect mention lattice and the circuit does non shut the vector which closes the circuit is called Burgers vector which represents the disruption of the crystal. Screw disruption: The atomic representation of the screw disruption is complicated and still Burgers vector is possible to stand for the disruption. If we move on the circuit of the disruption it will travel in a handbill like a prison guard. So, this is called as prison guard disruption as the Burgers vector does non alterations in both the disruptions but there is a alteration in the mark convention depending upon the clockwise and anti clock rotary motion of the vectors along the circuit. Defects in the gamma premier stage: The defects in the gamma premier stage undergo 3 types of defects they are 1. Planar defects 2. Line defects 3. Point defects As the defects the Ni and Al atoms, when bonded together an interface boundary known as the anti-phase boundary offprints Ni-Ni and Al-Al bonds as the figure of Ni-Al bonds near the APB is well reduced. In the line defects the stage dissociate into partial disruptions. In the point defects as the compositional scope of Al is 23 to 27 % .Thus, merely little divergences causes the point defects. Strengthening in nickel base metals: The mechanical belongingss of the Ni based alloys depend on the province of microstructure, chemical composing and processing conditions. As the disruptions of the stuff is reduced by some beef uping mechanisms to increase the hardness and strength. Work hardening: Solid solution strengthening/alloying: In this mechanism the solute atoms of one component are added to another, ensuing in either significant or interstitial point defects. The solute atoms cause lattice deformations that impede disruption gesture. The emphasis required to travel disruptions in the stuff is: ? = Gbc1/2?3/2 Where degree Celsius is the solute concentration and ? is the strain on the stuff caused by solute Precipitation Hardening: In most metals, 2nd stage can be precipitated from matrix in solid province. The atoms that compose the 2nd stage precipitates act as traping points in a similar mode to solutes. The disruptions in a stuff can interact with the precipitate atoms in one of two ways. If the precipitate atoms are little, the disruptions would cut through them. If larger precipitate atoms, looping or obeisance of the disruptions would happen. For atom looping/bowing ? = Gb/L-2r For atom film editing ? = r/bL Grain boundary strengthening: In metals grain size has enormous influence on the mechanical belongingss. Because grains normally have changing crystallographic orientations, grain boundary arises. The emphasis required to travel a disruption from one grain to another in order to plastically deform a stuff depends on the grain size. The mean figure of disruptions per grain lessenings with mean grain size. Processing of individual crystal Nickel based metals: Hardening theory: Equations for growing: Hardening is a physical alteration from liquid province to solid province of the stuff. As the heat transportation from the system to the milieus. In general, the composing of solid should be different from that of the liquid with an impure stuff will besides necessitate conveyance of solute. The regulating equations for the diffusion of heat and solute is I = S for solid and L for liquid, Ci =solute concentration in stage I, Ti = temperature in stage I, Di= solute diffusion coefficient in stage I, ? = Thermal diffusion coefficient, At the interface between solid and liquid Ts1 = TL1 = TI TI = Temperature of solid/liquid interface. CsI = kCL1 K = distribution coefficient Solute under chilling: This is the equation under chilling due to the presence of the solute in the stuff. The composing of the liquid at the interface, CL1 will in general will be different from the majority composing. If the stuff is pure ( ?Ts = 0 ) Curvature under chilling, ?T? T? = ?â€Å" ( 1/R1+1/R2 ) â€Å" = Gibbs Thomson coefficient. R1, R2 = rule radii of curvature As the Gibbs Thomson consequence arise due to the extra energy associated with the formation of a solid/liquid interface. Kinetic under chilling ?Tk: Growth of stage is a non equilibrium procedure during the procedure atoms gain energy between liquid and solid and a net transportation of atom will merely happen. As the drive force through the under chilling is known as kinetic under chilling. Interface construction: The interface construction is dependent on the solid/liquid interface bonding. The growing of the interface may be of two types. 1. Faceted growing: In faceted growing the crystals are bonded by angular surfaces turning to crystallographic plane. As the substances exhibit complex crystal construction and way bonding. 2. Non-Faceted growing: There is similarity between constructions, denseness and bonding in the solid and liquid interface. The dynamicss is independent of crystal orientation and the interface between the two stages will be more gradual and it becomes automatically unsmooth. Hardening of pure stuffs: For pure stuffs the above solute equations are non important. As in the under chilling for the pure stuffs ?Ts = 0.There stableness of the solid/liquid interface for pure stuffs will be dependent on the conditions of growing. There are two methods 1. Columnar ( or ) directional hardening: In the directional hardening heat is extracted through the solid in the opposite way to the growing way. 2. Equiaxed hardening: The heat extracted through the under cooled liquid into which the free crystals are turning. As the disturbance in the hardening forms spherical interface. Heat rejected is more the spherical interface will ever be unstable. Hardening of Binary metals: Directional hardening of binary metals for two-dimensional interface: The growing produced by easy traveling liquid specimen from a furnace. It is known as directional hardening. For two-dimensional interface, ?Tr =0 and the equilibrium at the interface ?Tk =0.Therfore the under chilling and composings at the interface will be given equilibrium. For the hardening of the metal three instances are to be considered. A Typical stage diagram of a two component metal. 1. Complete commixture in liquid, none in solid: This is practically merely possible when either the specimen length is really little or if a convective commixture in the liquid. The solute rejected by each little volume of the solid to organize distributed equally throughout the staying liquid. 2. No convection diffusion in liquid, none in solid: This state of affairs occurs in thin specimen, gravitation stabilised or infinite experiment. Hardening begins with an initial transient during which an enriched solute boundary bed builds up in front of the solid/liquid interface. 3. Partial commixture by convection in liquid: In this method presume a dead boundary bed of width in front of the solid/liquid interface in which conveyance occurs by diffusion merely. Outside this bed there is a complete commixture in the liquid. Columnar and Equiaxed grain construction: Equiaxed grain construction: The heat is extracted through the under chilling liquid. The temperature at the tip of the dendrite is negative. This is besides known as stray growing or unconstrained growing. The commanding parametric quantity for the growing speed is merely the under chilling Columnar grain construction: The heat is extracted through the solid in the opposite way to the growing way. The temperature at the tip of the dendrites is positive. It has constrained growing because the speed is fixed. Investing casting for individual crystal turbine blades: Investing casting is besides known as low wax casting. This procedure is one of the oldest fabrication procedures. It can be used to do the parts that can non be produced by normal fabricating technique such as turbine blades and high temperature aerospace stuffs. The cast is made up of form utilizing wax or some other stuff that can be melted off. This wax form is dipped in the furnace lining slurry, which coats the wax. This is dried and the procedure of dunking in the slurry and drying is repeated until a robust thickness is achieved. After the full form is placed in the oven and the wax is melted off. The stuff used for the slurry dwelling of binder and a mixture of aluminum oxide, ziricon and silicon oxide followed by stuccoing. The mold therefore produced can be used straight for the light casting. A conventional diagram of investing casting procedure Grain boundary picker: Growth of individual crystal metal utilizing grain picker: The blades of individual grain construction is achieved by directional hardening combined with a coiling grain picker with cylindrical base seed as in projecting metalworkss, the block is placed at the underside of the mold. The mold is withdrawn from the furnace to turn the blade. Several grains nucleated with the starter block can turn into a coiling transition manner and most of them will be eliminated and merely one grain survives during the growing. If the hardening in the organic structure starts from a individual crystal. As the grain orientation optimisation and a coiling grain picker easing dendrite ramification to guarantee that merely individual grain finally survives at the top of the seed Directional hardening in investing casting: In the directional hardening to turn columnar grains the heat should be extracted through the solid, in the opposite way to the growing way. For Ni-base metals, the most rapid dendrite growing way is selected as the long axis for the blades. How to cite Nickel Base Super Alloys For Aerospace Materials Engineering Essay, Essay examples

Business Research for Evaluation of Learnings- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theBusiness Research for Evaluation of Learnings. Answer: Effectiveness and usefulness of learning experience It is true that my learning has been tremendous in this course. I have imbibed from the course of Business Research some of the most important lessons which would be important in my future life. I was not sure about the dimensions of social media affecting the business processes. I came to know that social media is a two-way process and it has both benefits and losses. I studied all leading IT journals and became aware about the whole process of social media. This process has made me rely on the contribution of social media to business processes. I have gained the knowledge of how to use the online survey process and I was happy to learn that it is actually convenient. My opinions concerning the learning process is significantly high. I am fortunate enough to imbibe the basic concepts from the business research course. I was unaware of conducting a literature review. The literature review gave me an idea of how to present the idea of multiple authors in an interesting manner. I was less knowledgeable about the data collection process, but after this course, I have become more confident in this task. After going through this course, I have given immense value to the learning process and I am sure that I would be able to perform research proposal in a better way. Usefulness of the learning process The learning process after this course has been immense. This course has helped me in the performing of the different techniques of gathering relevant data, which would be required for a research proposal. I have understood the different nuisances of the social media, however, I should have understood its downfalls too. The course module was the only reason for which research proposal is one of the best assignments I look for. Earlier, I was not aware of the different sections of the research, but after this course, I am confident about how to do the different aspects of a research. In the future, I am sure that I have to submit dissertation and I am sure I would be able to tackle that well. I am aware about the basic components in a dissertation and I should be able to work in it. Major events of the learning process I am extremely happy with the exposure I got from the learning process. I have done extensive research on a number of international journals and scholarly articles. I have learnt how to establish validity of data. In this aspect, I have also learnt how to find the right document on the internet. I have been searching information on the social media advancement and hence I got to study so many international journals and publications. This has made me knowledgeable about the issue. I also learned the day to day issues. I have pondered over the role of social media and found that the business entities can really tap them. Evaluation of learnings My theoretical as well as practical knowledge have increased after going through the course. I was not sure about how to make perfect research questions, on which the research would concentrate. I have also mastered the art of writing a detailed literature review. My earlier assignments were weak since I could not find the exact key terms on internet. Now, I am able to modify the key words if I am not satisfied with the search results. This has given me the power to extract relevant information from a wide variety of media. Overall explanation of learning process I was engaged in the formulation of detailed literature review on my first assignment for which I could express the authors opinion in a vivid way. I collaborated the views of multiple authors and presented them in a coherent manner. I am happy that I can present contrasting views regarding social media. In the second assignment, I was engaged in preparing a gap analysis and identified several gaps present in earlier assignment. My study found that the presence of various gaps in the literature review, which is important to be addressed. I was completely clueless about sampling of data and was confused regarding the other associated terms. After going through this course, I have learnt that there are two forms of sampling namely probability sampling and non-probability sampling. I have also become knowledgeable about the data analysis process. I did not know the aspects of the reliability and validity of the collected data and after going through this assignment, I am confident about them. I can say that research methodology is one of the vital parts of research. I have also accepted the importance of data collection methods and the various application of the data analysis tools. I realized that it is also important to write down probable limitations that may come up during research process. I was not good at Microsoft Excel but in this assignment, I have prepared Gantt Chart. I have become more confident regarding these graphical representations. Application of the learning from course I will apply the learning from this course to my future academic field or future professional life. I have always heard good things about social media but never hard disadvantages of them. I was not sure about the importance of the components of the research proposal and now I am quite confident in same. In my future academic life, I would apply the knowledge imbibed in making dissertations. When I would be employed in MNC, I would be able to make my colleagues aware of the negative impacts of social media, which would help them to lead a more productive life. If I am employed in a finance firm, I would be able to use the complicated data analysis tools that I have learnt here such as ANOVA and regression. I am happy that I have gained a lot of knowledge from this course, which would help me to secure my future.

Larsen and Toubro Case Study free essay sample

Organizational Development (OD) is a planned long term effort led and supported through the top management to improve an organization’s ability and to solve its own problems by continuously working together and on managing the culture using behavioural skills. Thus, there are some certain aspects worth discussing about which are- OD is a planned effort. It requires a lot of effort, patience, and faith and is time consuming. Secondly, OD usually uses outsiders. These ‘facilitators’ as they are called are process specialists and are involved in depth in this process. The pioneers of OD in India were Larsen and Toubro India (LT). OD at LT started by calling in 2 eminent professors- Dr Udai Pareek and Dr TV Rao to study the appraisal process at the company. The existing appraisal system had many faults and needed to be corrected. The difficult task started by the professors interviewing some bosses and subordinates from different departments (using Diagnosis or Action Research) and they got a very interesting feedback. We will write a custom essay sample on Larsen and Toubro Case Study or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Some of the aspects of the feedback were – juniors wanted to know how well they were doing on the job, but weren’t told; people wanted to know what the growth opportunities in the company were; the appraisal form was too lengthy; some bosses had too many subordinates to appraise, etc. After getting the feedback from the employees the professors gave a report to the top management about the actual problem. The appraisal system had to serve not just one but many purposes namely it should help people understand their strengths and weaknesses, their own progress on the job, how they can perform better, and how they could grow in the company. So the appraisal process had to address the issues of appraisal, potential, counselling, career development and training all in one! The top management after reviewing the report gave the go ahead and they did two main things which were the most important which were bifurcating the Personnel department into personnel department and HRD department. This bifurcation was the first sign of ‘structural’ change. Secondly, a team of 6 senior managers was formed which would be responsible for implementing the changes required. The story continues when the 6 task force and the professors decided that the appraisal process had to involve the line managers personally, the performance goals must be set jointly by boss and junior and the appraisals must also involve feedback and counselling to people. Thus, they prepared a Performance Appraisal Manual by involving the departmental heads and other senior managers to analyze what kind of objectives could be set and then added such guidelines in the manual. To address the issue of feedback and counselling, the team identified around 29 senior line managers and some senior staff with a flair for public speaking. These selected people were put through a workshop on how to be good ‘Givers’ and ‘Receivers’ of feedback and then later conducted the same workshop for other employees at HQ and regional offices. Thus, the first workshop was a ‘Train the trainer’ workshop which was cascaded to the other employees. After putting in so much of effort now the management at LT wanted to know whether the process was working for them or not. So again the professors interviewed some seniors and juniors about how the appraisals were going on. This time different views came into the picture – the goal setting was seen as time consuming, appraisal was becoming a numbers game, and was tending to become ritualistic. The HRD department was asked to conduct a survey (Participant Action Research). The survey also threw new light about the new appraisal process. The bosses now did involve their juniors in the goal setting and there was ‘healthy resolution’ of difficulties and there was a ‘high degree of trust’ between the seniors and juniors which led to ‘increased joint understanding about the job’. After receiving such a feedback, they again tried to simplify the appraisal form by adding the definitions of the attributes listed in the appraisal form. In addition, they held refresher courses in feedback skills for both ‘givers’ and ‘receivers’ of feedback. The facilitators felt that the appraisal system has stabilised when 80 to 85% of the appraisal forms were returned within six weeks of the target date. Also the HRD department started analyzing all the appraisal forms. The data from the analysis was used for listing high and low performers for a certain period; for finalising departmental developmental plans and for preparing the list of department wise employees and the training courses they needed. The above mentioned process took LT 8 years to complete and stabilise themselves. Thus, I can conclude that OD is a long term process which requires a lot of patience, support from the top management and a vision to a bright future.

Diffusion of Innovations Essays

Diffusion of Innovations Essays Diffusion of Innovations Essay Diffusion of Innovations Essay The diffusion of innovations according to Rogers. With successive groups of consumers adopting the new technology (shown in blue), its market share (yellow) will eventually reach the saturation level. In mathematics the S curve is known as the logistic function. Diffusion of Innovations is a theory that seeks to explain how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures. Everett Rogers, a professor of rural sociology, popularized the theory in his 1962 book Diffusion of Innovations.He said diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system. The origins of the diffusion of innovations theory are varied and span multiple disciplines. Rogers (1962) espoused the theory that there are four main elements that influence the spread of a new idea: the innovation, communication channels, time, and a social system. This process relies heavily on human capital. Th e innovation must be widely adopted in order to self-sustain. Within the rate of adoption, there is a point at which an innovation reaches critical mass.The categories of adopters are: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards (Rogers 1962, p. 150). Diffusion of Innovations manifests itself in different ways in various cultures and fields and is highly subject to the type of adopters and innovation-decision process. The concept of diffusion was first studied by the French sociologist Gabriel Tarde (1890) and by German and Austrian anthropologists such as Friedrich Ratzel and Leo Frobenius. [1] Its basic epidemiological or internal-influence form was formulated by H.Earl Pemberton,[2] who provided examples of institutional diffusion such as postage stamps and standardized school ethic codes. In 1962 Everett Rogers, a professor of rural sociology published his work:Diffusion of Innovations. In this seminal piece, Rogers synthesized research from over 508 diffusion studies and produced a theory applied to the adoption of innovations among individuals and organizations. Rogers work asserts that 4 main elements influence the spread of a new idea: the innovation, communication channels, time, and a social system. These elements work in onjunction with one another: diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system. Rogers adds that central to this theory is process. Individuals experience 5 stages of accepting a new innovation: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation. If the innovation is adopted, it spreads via various communication channels. During communication, the idea is rarely evaluated from a scientific standpoint; rather, subjective perceptions of the innovation influence diffusion.The process occurs over time. Finally, social systems determine diffusion, norms on diffusion, roles of opinion leaders and change agents, types of innovation decisions, and innovation consequences. To use Rogers’ model in health requires us to assume that the innovation in classical diffusion theory is equivalent to scientific research findings in the context of practice, an assumption that has not been rigorously tested. How can we spread and sustain innovations in health service delivery and organization? Greenhalgh et al. evaluate an evidence-based model for considering the diffusion of innovations in health service organizations. [3] The origins of the diffusion of innovations theory are varied and span across multiple disciplines. Rogers identifies six main traditions that impacted diffusion research: anthropology, early sociology, rural sociology, education, industrial sociology, and medical sociology. The diffusion of innovation theory has been largely influenced by the work of rural sociologists. [4] In 1971, Rogers published a follow-up work: Communication of Innovations; A Cross-Cultural Approach. uil ding on his original theory on the diffusion process by evaluating social systems. This extension aimed to add value to Roger’s 1962 touchstone work (Rogers ;amp; Shoemaker, 1971). Elements[edit source  | editbeta] The key elements in diffusion research are: Element| Definition| Innovation| Rogers defines an innovation as an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption. [5]| Communication channels| A communication channel is the means by which messages get from one individual to another. 6]| Time| The innovation-decision period is the length of time required to pass through the innovation-decision process. [7] Rate of adoption is the relative speed with which an innovation is adopted by members of a social system. [8]| Social system| A social system is defined as a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint problem solving to accomplish a common goal. [9]| Decisions[edit source  | editbeta] Two factors determine wh at type a particular decision is: * Whether the decision is made freely and implemented voluntarily, * Who makes the decision.Based on these considerations, three types of innovation-decisions have been identified within diffusion of innovations. Type| Definition| Optional Innovation-Decision| This decision is made by an individual who is in some way distinguished from others in a social system. | Collective Innovation-Decision| This decision is made collectively by all individuals of a social system. | Authority Innovation-Decision| This decision is made for the entire social system by few individuals in positions of influence or power. | Process[edit source  | editbeta]Diffusion of an innovation occurs through a five–step process. This process is a type of decision-making. It occurs through a series of communication channels over a period of time among the members of a similar social system. Ryan and Gross first indicated the identification of adoption as a process in 194 3 (Rogers 1962, p. 79). Rogers five stages (steps): awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption are integral to this theory. An individual might reject an innovation at any time during or after the adoption process.Scholars such as Abrahamson (1991) examine this process critically by posing questions such as: How do technically inefficient innovations diffuse and what impedes technically efficient innovations from catching on? Abrahamson makes suggestions for how organizational scientists can more comprehensively evaluate the spread of innovations. [10] In later editions of the Diffusion of Innovations Rogers changes the terminology of the five stages to: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation. However the descriptions of the categories have remained similar throughout the editions.Five stages of the adoption process| Stage| Definition| Knowledge| In this stage the individual is first exposed to an innovation but lacks information about the innova tion. During this stage of the process the individual has not been inspired to find more information about the innovation. | Persuasion| In this stage the individual is interested in the innovation and actively seeks information/detail about the innovation. | Decision| In this stage the individual takes the concept of the change and weighs the advantages/disadvantages of using the innovation and decides whether to adopt or reject the innovation.Due to the individualistic nature of this stage Rogers notes that it is the most difficult stage to acquire empirical evidence (Rogers 1964, p. 83). | Implementation| In this stage the individual employs the innovation to a varying degree depending on the situation. During this stage the individual determines the usefulness of the innovation and may search for further information about it. | Confirmation| In this stage the individual finalizes his/her decision to continue using the innovation. This stage is both intrapersonal (may cause cogni tive dissonance) and interpersonal, confirmation the group has made the right decision. Rate of Adoption[edit source  | editbeta] The rate of adoption is defined as the relative speed in which members of a social system adopt an innovation. Rate is usually measured by the length of time required for a certain percentage of the members of a social system to adopt an innovation (Rogers 1962, p. 134). The rates of adoption for innovations are determined by an individual’s adopter category. In general, individuals who first adopt an innovation require a shorter adoption period (adoption process) when compared to late adopters.Within the rate of adoption, there is a point at which an innovation reaches critical mass. This is a point in time within the adoption curve that the amount of individuals adopters ensure that continued adoption of the innovation is self-sustaining. Illustrating how an innovation reaches critical mass, Rogers outlines several strategies in order to help a n innovation reach this stage. Strategies to propel diffusion include: when an innovation adopted by a highly respected individual within a social network, creating an instinctive desire for a specific innovation.Also, injecting an innovation into a group of individuals who would readily use said technology, and provide positive reactions and benefits for early adopters of an innovation. Difference Between Diffusion and Adoption[edit source  | editbeta] Adoption is an individual process detailing the series of stages one undergoes from first hearing about a product to finally adopting it. The diffusion process, however, signifies a group of phenomena, which suggests how an innovation spreads among consumers. Overall, the diffusion process essentially encompasses the adoption process of several individuals over time.Adopter categories[edit source  | editbeta] Rogers defines an adopter category as a classification of individuals within a social system on the basis of innovativenes s. In the book Diffusion of Innovations, Rogers suggests a total of five categories of adopters in order to standardize the usage of adopter categories in diffusion research. The adoption of an innovation follows an S curve when plotted over a length of time. [11] The categories of adopters are: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards (Rogers 1962, p. 50) In addition to the gatekeepers and opinion leaders who exist within a given community, there are change agents from outside the community. Change agents essentially bring innovations to new communities– ? rst through the gatekeepers, then through the opinion leaders, and so on through the community. Adopter category| Definition| Innovators| Innovators are the first individuals to adopt an innovation. Innovators are willing to take risks, youngest in age, have the highest social class, have great financial liquidity, are very social and have closest contact to scientific sources and interaction with other innovators.Risk tolerance has them adopting technologies which may ultimately fail. Financial resources help absorb these failures. (Rogers 1962 5th ed, p. 282)| Early adopters| This is the second fastest category of individuals who adopt an innovation. These individuals have the highest degree of opinion leadership among the other adopter categories. Early adopters are typically younger in age, have a higher social status, have more financial lucidity, advanced education, and are more socially forward than late adopters.More discrete in adoption choices than innovators. Realize judicious choice of adoption will help them maintain central communication position (Rogers 1962 5th ed, p. 283). | Early Majority| Individuals in this category adopt an innovation after a varying degree of time. This time of adoption is significantly longer than the innovators and early adopters. Early Majority tend to be slower in the adoption process, have above average social status, contact with early adopters, and seldom hold positions of opinion leadership in a system (Rogers 1962 5th ed, p. 83)| Late Majority| Individuals in this category will adopt an innovation after the average member of the society. These individuals approach an innovation with a high degree of skepticism and after the majority of society has adopted the innovation. Late Majority are typically skeptical about an innovation, have below average social status, very little financial lucidity, in contact with others in late majority and early majority, very little opinion leadership. | Laggards| Individuals in this category are the last to adopt an innovation.Unlike some of the previous categories, individuals in this category show little to no opinion leadership. These individuals typically have an aversion to change-agents and tend to be advanced in age. Laggards typically tend to be focused on traditions, likely to have lowest social status, lowest financial fluidity, be oldest of all other adopte rs, in contact with only family and close friends. | Rogers’ 5 Factors[edit source  | editbeta] Rogers defines several intrinsic characteristics of innovations that influence an individual’s decision to adopt or reject an innovation.Factor| Definition| Relative Advantage| How improved an innovation is over the previous generation. | Compatibility| The level of compatibility that an innovation has to be assimilated into an individual’s life. | Complexity or Simplicity| If the innovation is perceived as complicated or difficult to use, an individual is unlikely to adopt it. | Trialability| How easily an innovation may be experimented. If a user is able to test an innovation, the individual will be more likely to adopt it. | Observability| The extent that an innovation is visible to others.An innovation that is more visible will drive communication among the individual’s peers and personal networks and will in turn create more positive or negative reaction s. | Failed Diffusion[edit source  | editbeta] Rogers, in his Diffusion of Innovation writings, discussed a situation in Peru involving the implementation of water boiling to obtain higher health and wellness levels of the individuals living within the village of Los Molinas. The residents of the village have no knowledge of the link between particular sanitation and reduced levels of illness.The campaign was working with the villagers to try and teach them how to boil their water to make it healthier for consumption, as well as to burn their garbage, install working latrines, and report cases of illness to local health agencies. In Los Molinas, a stigma is linked to boiled water as being something that only the unwell consume, and thus, the idea of healthy residents boiling their water prior to consumption was frowned upon, and those who did so wouldnt be accepted by their society.Thus, the two-year campaign to help bring more sanitary ways of living to this village was considere d to be largely unsuccessful. Much of the reason for the lack of success is because the social norms and standards of acceptance into society greatly outweighed the idea of taking on this innovation, even at the sake of the health, well-being, and greater levels of education to the villagers. This failure better exemplified the importance of the roles of the interpersonal communication channels that are involved in such a health-related campaign for social change.Burt, R. S. (1973) also looked at the process of diffusion in El Salvador and asks: Is there a differential influence exercised by social integration on participation in the diffusion process and is such influence, significant above that exerted by other important diffusion relevant variables? [12] Heterophily and communication channels[edit source  | editbeta] Lazarsfeld and Merton first called attention to the principles of homophily and its opposite, heterophily. 13] Using their definition, Rogers defines homophily as the degree to which pairs of individuals who interact are similar in certain attributes, such as beliefs, education, social status, and the like. [13] When given the choice, individuals usually choose to interact with someone similar to him or herself. [14] Furthermore, homophilous individuals engage in more effective communication because their similarities lead to greater knowledge gain as well as attitude or behavior change. 14] However, most participants in the diffusion of innovations are heterophilous, meaning they speak different languages, so to speak. [14] The problem is that diffusion requires a certain degree of heterophily; if two individuals are identical, no diffusion occurs because no new information can be exchanged. [14] Therefore, an ideal situation would involve two individuals who are homophilous in every way, except in knowledge of the innovation. [14] The Role of Social Systems[edit source  | editbeta] Opinion Leaders[edit source  | editbeta]Throughout the diffusion process there is evidence that not all individuals exert an equal amount of influence over all individuals. In this sense there are Opinion Leaders, leaders who are influential in spreading either positive or negative information about an innovation. Rogers relies on the ideas of Katz amp; Lazarsfeld and the two-step flow theory in developing his ideas on the influence of Opinion Leaders in the diffusion process. [15] Opinion Leaders have the most influence during the evaluation stage of the innovation-decision process and late adopters (Rogers 1964, p. 19). In addition opinion leaders have a set of characteristics that set them apart from their followers and other individuals. Opinion Leaders typically have greater exposure to the mass media, more cosmopolitan, greater contact with change agents, more social experience and exposure, higher socioeconomic status, and are more innovative. Research was done in the early 1950s at the University of Chicago attempting to assess the cost-effectiveness of broadcast advertising on the diffusion of new products and services. 16] The findings were that opinion leadership tended to be organized into a hierarchy within a society, with each level in the hierarchy having most influence over other members in the same level, and on those in the next level below it. The lowest levels were generally larger in numbers, and tended to coincide with various demographic attributes that might be targeted by mass advertising. However, it found that direct word of mouth and example were far more influential than broadcast messages, which were only effective if they reinforced the direct influences.This led to the conclusion that advertising was best targeted, if possible, on those next in line to adopt, and not on those not yet reached by the chain of influence. It can be a waste of money to market to those not yet ready to buy. Other research relating the concept to public choice theory finds that the hierarchy of influence f or innovations need not, and likely does not, coincide with hierarchies of official, political, or economic status. [17] Elites are often not innovators, and innovations may have to be introduced by outsiders and propagated up a hierarchy to the top decision makers.Electronic communication social networks[edit source  | editbeta] Prior to the introduction of the Internet, it was argued that social networks had a crucial role in the diffusion of innovation particularly tacit knowledge in the book The IRG Solution hierarchical incompetence and how to overcome it. The book argued that the widespread adoption of computer networks of individuals would lead to the much better diffusion of innovations, and with greater understanding of their possible shortcomings, and the identification of needed innovations that would not have otherwise occurred the Relevance paradox.The social model proposed by Ryan and Gross (1943) (Rogers 1962, p. 79) is expanded by Valente (1996)[18] who uses soci al networks as a basis for adopter categorization instead of solely relying on the system-level analysis used by Ryan and Gross. Valente also looks at an individuals personal network, which is a different application than the organizational perspective espoused by many other scholars. [18] Organizations[edit source  | editbeta] Innovations are often adopted by organizations through two types of innovation-decisions: collective innovation decisions and authority innovation decisions.The collective innovation decision occurs when the adoption of an innovation has been made by a consensus among the members of an organization. The authority-innovation decision occurs when the adoption of an innovation has been made by very few individuals with high positions of power within an organization (Rogers 2005, p. 403). Unlike the optional innovation decision process, these innovation-decision processes only occur within an organization or hierarchical group.Within the innovation decision pro cess in an organization there are certain individuals termed champions who stand behind an innovation and break through any opposition that the innovation may have caused. The champion within the diffusion of innovation theory plays a very similar role as to the champion used within the efficiency business model Six Sigma. The innovation process within an organization contains five stages that are slightly similar to the innovation-decision process that individuals undertake.These stages are: agenda-setting, matching, redefining/restructuring, clarifying, routinizing. Policy Diffusion[edit source  | editbeta] The theories of diffusion have spread beyond the original applied fields. In the case of political science and administration, policy diffusion focuses on how institutional innovations are adopted by other institutions, at the local, state or country level. An alternative term is policy transfer where the focus is more on the agents of diffusion such as in the work of Diane S tone.The first interests with regards to policy diffusion were focused in the variation over time (Berry ;amp; Berry 1990[19] or [1], state lottery adoption) but more recently the interest has shifted towards mechanisms (emulation, learning, coercion, as in Simmons ;amp; Elkins (2004)[20] or Gilardi (2010)[21] or in channels of diffusion (as in Jordana, Levi-Faur and Fernandez-i-Marin (2011)[22]), where the authors find that the creation of regulatory agencies is transmitted by country and sector channels).Diffusion of New Technology[edit source  | editbeta] Peres, Muller and Mahajan (2010) suggest that Innovation diffusion of a new technology is the process of the market penetration of new products and services that is driven by social in? uences, which include all interdependencies among consumers that affect various market players with or without their explicit knowledge. [23] Eveland (1986) evaluated diffusion of innovations from a strictly phenomenological view, which is very different than the other perspectives I found.He asserts that, â€Å"Technology is information, and exists only to the degree that people can put it into practice and use it to achieve values†[24] Diffusion of existing technologies has been measured in S curves. These technologies include radio, television, VCR, cable, flush toilet, clothes washer, refrigerator, home ownership, air conditioning, dishwasher, electrified households, telephone, cordless phone, cellular phone, per capita airline miles, personal computer and the Internet. This data[25] can be assessed as a valuable predictor for future innovations. Diffusion curves forInfrastructures[26] This data reveals stunning contrast in the diffusion process of personal technologies versus infrastructure. Consequences of adoption[edit source  | editbeta] There are both positive and negative outcomes when an individual or organization chooses to adopt a particular innovation. Rogers states that this is an area that needs f urther research because of the biased positive attitude that is associated with the adoption of an innovation (Rogers 2005, p. 470). In the Diffusion of Innovation, Rogers lists three categories for consequences: desirable vs. ndesirable, direct vs. indirect, and anticipated vs. unanticipated. In her article, Integrating Models of Diffusion of Innovations, Barbara Wejnert details two categories for consequences: public vs. private and benefits vs. costs. [27] Public vs. Private[edit source  | editbeta] Public consequences refer to the impact of an innovation on those other than the actor, while private consequences refer to the impact on the actor itself. [27] Public consequences usually involve collective actors, such as countries, states, organizations, or social movements. 27] The results are usually concerned with issues of societal well-being. [27] Private consequences usually involve individuals or small collective entities, such as a community. [27] The innovations are usua lly concerned with the improvement of quality of life or the reform of organizational or social structures. [27] Benefits vs. Costs[edit source  | editbeta] The benefits of an innovation obviously refer to the positive consequences, while the costs refer to the negative. [28] Costs may be monetary or nonmonetary, direct or indirect. 28] Direct costs are usually related to financial uncertainty and the economic state of the actor. [28] Indirect costs are more difficult to identify. [28] An example would be the need to buy a new kind of fertilizer to use innovative seeds. [28] Indirect costs may also be social, such as social conflict caused by innovation [28] Marketers are particularly interested in the diffusion process as it determines the success or failure of a new product. It is quite important for a marketer to understand the diffusion process so as to ensure proper management of the spread of a new product or service.Mathematical treatment[edit source  | editbeta] Main art icle: Logistic function The diffusion of an innovation typically follows an S shaped curve which often resembles a logistic function. Mathematical programming models such as the S-D model apply the diffusion of innovations theory to real data problems. [29] International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA)[edit source  | editbeta] Several papers on the relationship between technology and the economy have been written by researchers at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA).The pertinent papers deal with energy substitution and the role of work in the economy as well as with the long economic cycle. Using the logistic function, these researchers were able to provide new insight into market penetration, saturation and forecasting the diffusion of various innovations, infrastructures and energy source substitutions. [30] Cesare Marchetti published on Kondretiev waves and on diffusion of innovations. [31] Grubler (1990) presents a mathematical disc ussion of diffusion and substition models. 32] Criticism[edit source  | editbeta] Much of the evidence for the diffusion of innovations gathered by Rogers comes from agricultural methods and medical practice. Various computer models have been developed in order to simulate the diffusion of innovations. Veneris developed a systems dynamics computer model which takes into account various diffusion patterns modeled via differential equations. [33][34] There are a number of criticisms of the model which make it less than useful for managers.First, technologies are not static. There is continual innovation in order to attract new adopters all along the S-curve. The S-curve does not just happen. Instead, the s-curve can be seen as being made up of a series of bell curves of different sections of a population adopting different versions of a generic innovation. Rogers has placed the contributions and criticisms of diffusion research into four categories: pro-innovation bias, individual-b lame bias, recall problem, and issues of equality. 35] One of the cons of the Diffusion of Innovation approach is that the communication process involved is a one-way flow of information. The sender of the message has a goal to persuade the receiver, and there is little to no dialogue. The person implementing the change controls the direction and outcome of the campaign. In some cases, this is the best approach, but other cases require a more participatory approach.

Purification of Drinking Water, Drinking Water Treatment Processes, Essay

Purification of Drinking Water, Drinking Water Treatment Processes, Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries - Essay Example Availability of clean drinking water is a major global concern with the situation in developing countries becoming worse due to the rapid population growth in these nations. Scarcity of water has serious socio-economic implications in developing countries with women and girls from poor families spending a majority of their time searching for water at the expense of economically rewarding activities and education (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010). Poor quality drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene contribute to 4 billion cases of diarrhoea disease annually with more than 1.5 million people losing their lives, the majority being children under the age of five years (United Nations, 2005). These people are usually exposed to contaminated drinking water mainly from untreated waste water that contains human and animal faeces and urine exposing them to pathogenic micro organisms. Water Sources Drinking water comes from both surface and ground water with the na tural water cycle maintaining the available water for mankind (Omran, 2011). Majority of people from developing countries get their water from springs, boreholes, sealed wells, hand-dug wells, streams, rivers, and lakes (Omran, 2011). Some of these sources are contaminated with water borne diseases responsible for over 50% hospitalization in these countries (Alward et al., 1994). Despite some of the sources like ground water being clean and safe for drinking, improper use, ignorance and lack of adequate sanitation facilities like toilets make their drinking water contaminated during collection, transport, storage and drawing of water (Lindskog and Lindskog, 1988). This contributes significantly to developing countries disease burdens. Purification of Drinking Water Majority of people living in developing countries uses simple and rudimentary water treatment techniques to serve individual households and community needs despite the availability of superior conventional technologies. C onventional treatment technologies are too expensive and inappropriate for people living in very poor neighbourhoods due to limitation in infrastructure and skilled personnel. The simple and rudimentary water purification system is primarily aimed to remove the visible impurities such as floating particles, leaves, and twigs. The commonly used water purification systems include; Simple Filtration This is accomplished by using locally available filters, sieves, or pieces of cloth. The filters can be made of sandstones and plant materials and are purposefully made to clarify or remove visible contaminants of water. Boiling Boiling is the most commonly used and promoted household water treatment method around the world (Beddow, 2010). The water being boiled must reach a boiling temperature of 1000c. This process is effective in killing most pathogens that cause water borne diseases. The disadvantages of boiling include the lack of residual antimicrobial properties in the water making t he water easily re-contaminated if handled improperly. Boiling is widely accepted across all regions and when done properly offers many people access to safe drinking water free from diarrhoea causing organisms. Waste Water Treatment Waste water treatment in developing cou

Crime in the UK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Crime in the UK - Essay Example In addition, the victimisation of the population is also gender specific. Women fall victim to some crimes in greater numbers than men, while some crimes have men as their main target. An evaluation of the gender specific issues that impact the perpetrators and the victims of criminal activity can help illuminate the forces and theories that explain criminal behaviour. In many ways, men and women have become more socially equal in the last decade, though there are still important social and cultural differences. Eighty percent of the 1.42 million offenders that were sentenced in the UK in 2006 were male, and in the crime of sexual assault the number rose to 97 percent (Office for National Statistics, 2008, p.12). While gender was highly correlated to specific crimes it was also had a relationship to the gender of the victim. Females were almost six times as likely to be the victim of domestic violence, while men were four times more likely than women to suffer from the violence inflicted by a stranger (Office for National Statistics, 2008, p.12). Acquaintance violence was more nearly even with men becoming the victim 58 percent of the time (Office for National Statistics, 2008, p.12). Understanding the social and cultural differences that create these disparities can help further to design policies that will further reduce the crime rate. In addit ion to the different motivations that gender presents to the criminal act, the perceptions of the victim are also gender specific. Women are likely to be fearful of crime and worry about it to a degree that it impacts their quality of life, while these same emotions impact men to a lesser degree. An evaluation of social forces, crime theory, and victim theory can help to reduce crime further and limit the unwarranted worry of becoming a victim. The examination of the crime of assault reveals the role that acquaintances, relationships, and gender play to impact the initiation of violence. Men are slightly more likely to be the victim of acquaintance violence than a woman (Office for National Statistics, 2008, p.12). Studies have shown that there is a substantial propensity for violence among women, but the expression of violent behaviour is largely limited to intimate and personal relationships (George, 1999, p.76). Inter-relationship female on male violence has its foundation in rage, frustration, jealousy, and anger, while the perpetrator does not stop to consider the size of the male, their own defencelessness, or the possibility of retribution. According to George (1999), "It has been suggested, in relation to violence in dating relationships, that females may perceive aggression toward male romantic partners as more acceptable or less dangerous than aggression toward others and hence tend to confine their aggression to such intimate relationships" (p.76). However, the rates of domestic violence indicate that the threat of retaliation is real, and simply ignored. When women initiate violent assault, they suspend their social values and pragmatic judgment and their behaviour becomes controlled by the emotionally charged self. This is further reinforced by the other emotional traits when "to be the centre of attention and putting one's needs before the needs of others (self-centredness) doubled the odds of female participation in violent crimes" (Ramoutar & Farrington, 2006, p.565). For women, emotion plays a central role

Analyzing Stories Assignmrnt Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Analyzing Stories Assignmrnt - Essay Example With the incessant teaching of Miss Moore about facts of life regarding the poor and the rich, Sugar, one of the students came to realize her point during this trip where she reckoned that not even all of their money for their food in year cannot be summed up to buy the toy boat they saw in the store. Although the storyteller was quite annoyed at the conversation, the irony in the story is expressed at the end where she turned out to be the more serious type of a person who was struck with the exchange of ideas. Sylvia decided to be alone so she could think about what happened through the day while Sugar who seemed to be more reflective, turned out to be more concerned of where they were going to spend the change of Miss Moore that she never asked. Most of the characters in the story are static, showing no change in their personalities. For instance, Mercedes presented herself to be the more affluent among them, telling them about what she has and what she could have if she asks her dad to buy things for her. Rosie Giraffe on the other hand has always been the troublemaker, being reckless in her actions and words, waiting for a chance to get to whoever gets caught in her trap. The same is true with the other minor characters that are not the focus in the story but seemed to have been used as standards to differentiate the other characters. Sugar is a flat character because although there was no change in her, there was a time in the story that she became reflective and showed signs of becoming a round character. However, the end of the story reveals that she did not seriously consider her thought that might have changed her life and character. On the hand, where Sugar left her reflections, the main character picked her senses. Sylvia is a dynamic character showing a change in behavior towards the end of the story, taking time to herself to reflect on the things that happened that day. She, from the beginning of the story showed

The Concepts Of Equality And Inclusion

The Concepts Of Equality And Inclusion In my essay my intention is for the reader to gain an insight to the effectiveness of legislation and currents Scottish Government policy through various factors. These factors being prejudice, discrimination, poverty, stereotyping, and promoting social justice and inclusion. I have also looked into diversity and how the above factors can influence in an early year setting. With having an insight to multiple identities, I have considered its application to policy and practice in the early years settings. Siraj Blatchford, (2006) describes multiple identities, as Identity formation is a complex process that is never completed. She believed individuals experience of gender, class, and other formative categories will form ones identity. Identity can be described as a kaleidoscope, suggesting children are all individuals and differences in people. Parents views, media images, and the childs own perceptions based on their experiences and the values they have been shown can shape their identity. Children may have had a strong role model in their life absent and have a negative perception of people. Siraj Blatchford, (1998) stresses the importance to avoid stereotyping and the role an early years staff need to be vigilant of this and to take an active role in planning for, that avoid stereotyping supporting and developing individual childrens identities as masterful learners of a broad and balance curriculum. Children at my placement had the opportunity to express their own identity through their own planning. This is evident in Task 1 (Appendix-A:1). Standard 11 from the National Care Standards (2005), Each child or young person has access to a sufficient and suitable range of resources. Point 1 of Standard 11 indicates this should be apparent with providing multi-cultural materials. Legislation such as the Equality Act (2010) provides todays society a law that protects individuals from unfair treatment and promotes a fair and more equal society. Early year practitioners need to be aware of this act. This will then strengthen their knowledge and help towards preventing discrimination and inequality. Early years practitioners are also protected by the legislation. Whilst on placement I researched what resources they had to meet all individual and multiple identities. This is evident in Task 2 (Appendix A:2). This is also inline with Getting it right for every child, (2007) were is states Children and young people should be involved in planning according to their age, stage and understanding. Practitioners then are putting the child needs at the centre and develop a shared understanding within the setting and across agencies. There are eight sub headings that Scotland feels Children in Scotland should have met. These are Safe, Healthy, Achieving, Nurtured, Active, Respected, Responsible, and Included. A plan may be put in place if a child is not being able to achieve one of the above. A plan is put in place for the childs goals to be accomplished and to monitor the childs progress. A child with this assessment tool is having their individual needs looked at. In Task 1(Appendix A:1) it is evident demonstrating how the setting dealt with a child who had specific individual needs and who the setting was in partnership with. Staff should be aware how they treat children as individuals to avoid stereotyping what a girl can play with and what a boy can play with. For example a boy should not be discouraged from playing in the home corner as that would be stereotyping it should only be girls. This is outlined in Lindon, (1998). Children should be able to choose and play with what they want. Staff should be aware of their language towards children and shouldnt suggest strong boys or a clever girl to pass on a message. This was outlined in my observations where the children had the choice to choose what they want to play with and what area in the playroom. This is outlined in Task 1 (Appendix A:1) . Early years establishments should consider The Race Relations Amendment Act, (2000). This act protects staff from being racial abused promotion of good equality to all people regardless of their racial groups. Milner, (1983) demonstrated children have shown positive and negative feelings about people from a different race from themselves. As a practitioner ensuring they portray a positive image to all will discourage negative and racial prejudice whilst making children aware not everyone is the same. Planning with Curriculum for Excellence (2009) will encourage for children to be Responsive Citizens which covers respect for others and understand different beliefs and cultures. In early years settings it is predominately females but a mixed work force is an advantage for children and staff. Children should have positive relationships with females and males. There should be a staff employment process and policy to prevent stereotyping and discrimination when recruiting. Staff should also speak to male guardians when they come to collect the child rather than only speaking to the mothers. This would be deemed as prejudice towards the male role of parenting. In my placement they had a recruitment policy, which was visible at the entrance. This is outlined in Task 3 (Appendix A:3). HMIE The Child at the Centre, (2007) indicator 9.1 looks at promotion of positive attitudes to social and cultural diversity. By talking to both female and males parents the vision is shared and all are working together. This means all involved with the setting have a shared knowledge of the setting aims and values. In point 9.1 is also describes the importance of celebrating diversi ty and inclusion. This is a key point as it may then promote positive attitudes in which will have a knock on effect on the child perception of what is acceptable. Whilst having protection for children and their rights, each child should be treated as an equal whilst getting their individual needs met. All children should be treated fairly regardless of their home circumstances. Children have a better prospect to a brighter future in life if legislation is in place. Pre-school is important for children to receive positive messages and learn values of others. If children are in a minority in a nursery class they are more likely to find it difficult if labelled or stereotyped. This is in-line with what Dowling, (2010) believes children will learn from the message received from the adults in their life and through modelling. Acts are put in place to protect children and others. The Children (Scotland) Act 1995 protects the welfare, safety and rights of the child. Childrens participation in family, community and culture makes a particular contribution to their life (Waller, 2005). Early year settings should be making it their duty to work well together with parents, authorities and agencies to tackle issues against class, poverty and discrimination. Also staff should be aiming for all childrens outcomes to be achieved regardless of their class, so children dont fall into a low class society due to lack of opportunities. As a practitioner I have a responsibility to use legislation in my practice and portray positive images to children about all being equal and treated fairly which is in-line with National Care Standards, (2005), Standard 8, point 1. The Equality Bill, (2009) is to reduce socio-economic inequalities. It gives each individual opportunity to succeed to build a modern prosperous society, tackling any barriers that hold people back. If people receive help they wont begin to have a sense of hopelessness. Services should be aiming for all childrens outcomes to be achieved regardless of their class, so children dont fall into a low class society due to lack of opportunities. Equally Well, (2008) is The Scottish Government approach to tackling poverty and to improve the health in Scotland. It covers points, which will influence a child opportunity in life. Childrens circumstances in the earliest years of life are critical to future health inequalities. If work can be put in place at the earliest stage possible it achieve to an ending of the cycle of todays health inequalities which is what the parents passes onto the child and affecting their future. Equally well, (2008) is also in line with the Scottish Government policy, Early Years Framework, (2009). Through this they hope to change the focus from crisis intervention to prevention and early intervention. Achieving Our Potential (2008) also is a framework, which is trying to tackle poverty in todays society. The Government through this policy is aiming to support those who are in poverty or any individuals that in risk of falling into poverty. In Scotland they found 17% of Scotland population was affect ed by relative poverty. The Early Year Framework, (2009) aims to provide children the best start to their life through the support of families, communities and services. Further more if all working together it should help to improve the state of people health through, less stress for parents as receiving support, safer housing and environments for children to develop and learn. It will also improve engagement with children and families. The framework works along side the UN Convention on Rights of the Child, (1989). One of the points which is important for early years setting to be aware of is Article 27 Children grow up free from poverty in their early years and have their outcomes defined by their ability and potential rather than their family background. This applies to all children regardless of their age, gender, race, culture beliefs and social status. According to Bennett and Moss report, ( 2009) Working with Diversity: summary of a discussion paper for Children in Scotland. They believed some children services help contribute to social justice. One of the key themes being working with ethnicity and poverty They believed that children with a lower socio-economic groups are statistically likely to have poor outcomes on a wide range of measures. These outcomes include the childs family stability, attendance in class, health and employability opportunities. Children from an excluded ethnic background will be even more likely to have poorer outcomes due to be socially excluded. Additionally they also felt the government should give children a fair start in life which is very similar to what the Early Years Framework, (2009) is trying to achieve. Services for children then have an important role in looking at children at individuals and promote their learning regardless of any ethic background. This is evident from my placement in Task 1 (Appendix A:1). The placement also offered praise to the children through various ways and is inline with the setting prompting Positive behaviour policy. This is evident in Task 2 and Task 3 (Appendix A:2 and A:3). This promotes the identities of the children and is a fair process for all promoting inclusion. Point 1.1 of the Scottish Social Services Council Codes of Practice for Social Service Workers, (2002) is to treat each person as an individual. The codes is an agreed document which is active as services Workers are adhering to working in services to provide the best possible care to the needs of others and following a conduct of practice. Point 1.6 Respecting diversity and different cultures and values. This point is valuable to be respectful of individual identities and their backgrounds. Early years staff on my placement all held a enhanced disclosure from Disclosure Scotland, (2002), which is where adults working with children are vetted against any convictions and details any list they are on which inhibits them to work with children. It means the person working with a child is safe to do so and plays an important part of the recruitment process that all individuals will undertake due the nature of work. This is line with the placement policy on Selection Process For Staff and is in-line with HMIE Child at the Centre, (2007) indicator 1.2. The indicator implements what is the lawful requirement for the setting whilst following legislation and codes of practice. Maslow hierarchy of needs is a triangle of needs he believed human beings have to work through. According to Maslow one stage had to be satisfied in order to process to the next stage. A child in poverty will struggle to move from the physiological needs stage as poverty will inflict on the amount of food and warmth they have. The next stage takes into account of safety, which may not be ideal for people living in rural areas due to poverty. Carneiro, (2007) showed that parental interest has a strong impact on the development of cognitive and social skills. Parents with high interest for preschool education will send their child to a good learning environment. According to Sammons, ( 2005) children who have no pre-school have lower cognitive scores and social abilities. This will then have a knock on effect to the child abilities to succeed as they grow. Parents are encouraged to take an active role within the setting I was on placement at. This is evident in Task 3 (Appendix A:3). By involving themselves they are working alongside the team and provides the parents the opportunity to build positive relationships. With all parents being welcomed they will feel valued and are being treated as an equal. It also gives parents the opportunity to find out information about the childs home life. With thinking about my placement and its stage of understanding social justice and inclusion I began to think of Siraj Blatchford, (1996) stages of equality practice. With the 6 stages I feel my placement lies within Stage 4. They do celebrate different cultures and follow policies around equal opportunities, Partnership with parents and promotion of positive behaviour. With the partnership policy all parents are welcomed and individual talents are also encouraged for the children learning. This is outlined in Task 2 and Task 3 (Appendix A:2 and A:3). There are no male members employed at the moment within the setting I was placed at, so dads and other significant male figures are encouraged to play their role within the setting. This too then set out equalities within the setting and offers a different kind of learning for the children. They have a wide range of cultural activities in which the children can choose they are not only set out when its the time of a particular festival. The setting has a wide range of learning materials for the children learning around different cultures. This is evident in Task 1(Appendix A:1) Children can also explored new resources with their own choice; this is evident in Task 2 (Appendix A:2). The general ethos of the setting is to respect all and is this evident throughout the setting. This is evident throughout Task 1-3(Appendix A:1-A:3). As stated in Malik, H (2003) within my role I should be providing the best possible care and a high level of service in my practice as it reflects equal opportunities policies and practices. This is where it is logical to have a clear understanding of policies and the government initiatives to make Scotland a better society for the future of todays children. In practice today practitioners need to be able to treat children as individuals and demonstrate a positive attitude to abolish negative traits such as stereotyping, prejudice and judging others social class. By offering a good learning environment for children such as pre-school, school and open play areas, it will give them the opportunity for the best start in life. This is in-inline with an approach from Achieving Our Potential, (2008). Legislation and policies in this piece of writing play a crucial role in early year settings. Equality and fairness should be a robust significance throughout a setting to promote inclusion an d multiple identities. All involved in a setting are treated in a non-discriminatory and respectful manner. This is in-line with HMIE The Child at the Centre, (2007) Point 5.6.

Teaching Philosophy :: Education Teachers Reflective Writing Essays

Teaching Philosophy I believe the main purpose of teaching any subject is to encourage students to think critically and appreciate knowledge. Thinking critically is a skill students, no matter where their lives lead them, will need. A teacher should be dedicated to the content they are teaching and should love what they are doing. The fact that students are learning the subject is not enough; a teacher also has an obligation to foster an enjoyment of learning in their students and to show them how they can apply it to their own lives. Teachers should be able to show students that what they are learning in the classroom is relevant to their own lives. The subject material and the students’ response to the subject material should be helping them learn about themselves, and the people they want to be. As for the actual methods of teaching, the students should always be actively involved in everything they are learning. No student wants to sit in a desk for forty-five minutes listening to their teacher lecture. Discussion and having students solve problems for themselves should be main components of the classroom. I believe facilitating discussion, especially in an English classroom, is one of the most important aspects of a child’s learning experience. By discussing their ideas with the teacher and other students, they are learning to effectively express their opinions and think further about what they are learning. The teacher needs to play an important role in ensuring students feel comfortable about speaking about their ideas and encouraging them to give voice to their opinions. A teacher’s work should not be confined to inside the classroom but should extend outside as well. The students they are teaching are the ones in whose hands the future of the world lies, and so a teacher’s responsibility is to demonstrate to students that they need to have a commitment to the world they are living in. A teacher should help their students to know more their world and community through the subject matter they are teaching. This should manifest itself in teaching about tolerance, respect and fostering a desire to better the world they are living in.